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- [ Note: This series of articles was found on Compuserve and downloaded
- from HAMNET there on 21 July 1985 by Dwight Ernest KA2CNN 70210,523. ]
-
- An Introduction to Networks
- part 2
- by T.C. McDermott, N5EG
- networks SIG, TPRS
-
- In the last article the distinction between a LAN and long- haul
- network was made. Also the performance problems associated with
- unreliable radio circuits and the End-to-end ACK was discussed. This
- article will present some other methods of information transfer
- possible.
-
- Another method of information transfer possible is "HOP-TO- HOP"
- acknowledge. In this method, each packet, or small group of packets, is
- acknowledged by every receiving station along the path from the sender
- to the receiver. For example, using the same terminology as the last
- article, S=sender, R=receiver, D1,D2, ... Dn = digipeaters.
-
- S : send packet
- D1 : ACK to S, repeat frame
- D2 : ACK to D1, repeat frame
- R : ACK to D2.
-
- Why does this method improve the throughput of the system ? Because
- now that the sender, S does not have to wait for the ACK to return from
- R, S may send another packet after the ACK from D1. That is, it may
- OVERLAP traffic.
-
- S : send packet 1
- D1 : ACK S-1, repeat 1
- D2 : ACK D1-1, repeat 1 S : send packet 2
- R : ACK D2-1 D1 : ACK S-2, repeat 2
- D2 : ACK D1-2, repeat 2
- R : ACK D2-2
-
- In other words, once that S has received it's acknowledge, it may
- transmit the next packet almost immediately (if D1 is on the same
- channel, it should wait for the D2 --> D1 ack first, if the D2 --> D1
- link is on a different frequency [as in a network] then S could transmit
- the next packet immediately upon receiving the D1 ACK). What happens to
- the flow of information in the presence of errors in the transmission ?
- Lets look at an example:
-
- S : send packet
- D1 : ACK S, repeat packet
- D2 : gets garbled packet from D1
- D1 : waiting for ACK from D2
- D1 : retransmits packet to D2 after time-out
- D2 : ACK D1, repeat packet
- R : ACK D2
-
- In article one, with this same exact scenaro, it took 25 packet
- times to accomplish the transfer of one packet from S to R through 2
- digipeaters. In this example it took 6 packet times, a 417 %
- performance improvement in the transmission time. This performance
- improvement actually increases with more digipeaters, or worse RF paths.
- In fact with 8 digipeaters, and a 70 % probability of a sucessful
- packet-hop, this approach offers about a 10,000 % performance advantage
- !
-
- Additional to the transit time advantage (time delay per packet in
- seconds-from-S-to-R), there is the advantage in throughput (bytes/sec.).
- The throughput in the HOP-TO-HOP ack method is NOT dependent upon the
- number of digipeaters. This is because as soon as the first digipeater
- has acknowledged the reception of the senders' packet, the sender is
- free to send the next packet, regardless of the number of hops in the
- path. Contrast this to the end-to-end hop method, where the throughput
- is very dramatically dependent upon the number of hops in the path.
-
- What is required of the digipeaters in the network to handle this
- type of repeating function, i.e. HOP-TO-HOP digipeating? Each
- repeating station is required to contain a fair amount of memory, enough
- to buffer every packet that it digipeats until that packet is
- acknowledged by the next repeater. Since the repeater may receive
- packets from several different stations at nearly the same time, and
- perhaps some of them are occaisonally garbled in transmission to the
- next repeater, then they must be stored in repeater memory until they
- are sucessfully passed to the next repeater.
-
- The repeaters must also implement some sort of flow control. If
- packets arrive faster than they can be sent, then the buffer memory
- could overflow. Thus the repeater must be able to tell the previous
- repeater, or sender, that the packet is rejected, and to stop sending.
- When the repeater clears the messages, and thus frees up some memory,
- then it re-initiates packet transfer from the previous station. This
- finite memory size limitation actually causes the end-to-end performance
- of the network to become more heavily dependent upon the quality of the
- RF links. Thus performance of the HOP-TO-HOP system is dependent upon
- the probability of RF path-hop success, but is not heavily dependent
- upon the number of repeaters in the path, unlike the END-TO-END scheme.
- This was taken into account when I stated that the performance of the
- HOP-TO-HOP ack with 8 digipeaters, and 70% path-hop probability of
- success was about 10000% better than the END-TO-END method.
-
- There is one intetersting dis-advantage to the HOP-TO-HOP scheme,
- although it is not a strong disadvantage, and that is the issue of data
- integrity. In the END-TO-END ack ( EEA ) scheme when the receiver
- acquired the data, the ACK was sent. Thus when the sender receives the
- ACK, there is certainty that the data was in fact received. In the
- HOP-TO-HOP ack ( HHA ) all that is known when the sender receives the
- ack, is that the first digipeater received the ack. A failure in the
- network could still block the receiver from receiving the data - thus
- the sender was ACK'ed even though the receiver had not received the
- data. This is not as serious a problem as it sounds at first, however,
- since there is still a method to determine whether the data is received
- at the final destination correctly.
-
- This is handled by layer 4 of the OSI model - the transport layer.
- It is responsible for data integrity in the real world of unreliable
- networks. One protocol for doing this is familiar to those of us with
- AX.25 units, and this is the Virtual Circuit protocol. Each of us is
- intimately familiar with virtual circuits. Any time that you connect to
- another station, you have generated a virtual circuit. You and the
- receiver communicate on a common channel with everybody else. But your
- traffic only goes to your desired destination, not all destinations on
- the channel. Thus there is a circuit between you and the connected
- receiver on a channel with a (theoretically) unlimited number of
- circuits. This is called a virtual circuit. The only reason there is a
- circuit is because you and the connected receiver previously agreed to a
- connection. The circuit is dissolved when you and the receiver agree to
- this (disconnect). The next article in this series will deal with the
- virtual circuit protocol on the network, as opposed to the virtual
- circuit between the sender and the network, or between the receiver and
- the network, which is something different.
-